MODULE 1.21
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) was a French sociologist whose work laid the foundation for the study of sociology as a distinct academic discipline. Influenced by the social changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution, Durkheim sought to understand how societies function and maintain order. One of his most significant contributions was his emphasis on social facts—patterns of behavior that exist outside the individual and exert control over them. According to Durkheim, sociology should focus on studying these external social forces, as they play a crucial role in shaping individual behavior.
To describe the Industrial Revolution and its effects, Durkheim focused on the division of labor and solidarity. The division of labor refers to how a society divides up and assigns day-to-day tasks. Durkheim was interested in how the division of labor affected solidarity, the system of social ties that acts as a cement connecting people to one another and to the wider society. Durkheim observed that industrialization changed the division of labor and, by extension, the nature of solidarity from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity.
Pre-industrial societies are characterized by mechanical solidarity, a system of social ties based on uniform thinking and behavior. Durkheim believed that uniformity is common in societies with a simple division of labor where, for the most part, everyone performs the same tasks needed to maintain their livelihood. This sameness gives rise to common experiences, skills, and beliefs. In pre-industrial societies, religion and family are extremely important.
As a result, the social ties that bind are grounded in tradition, obligation, and duty. These societies do not have the technology or resources to mass-produce a variety of products that people can buy to distinguish themselves from others. While mechanical solidarity is associated with pre-industrial societies, we can find contemporary examples of this solidarity in groups that are isolated and homogeneous, such as the Old Order Amish, and in groups that demand disciplined and coordinated action, such as military units. It is likely that the Eskimo family (left) depicted in the image has the skills to make their clothes and construct housing.
Thus, they live in an environment characterized by mechanical solidarity. Durkheim argued that in such a society, a person’s “first duty is to resemble everybody else” (1933, p. 396). It is unlikely that the family on the right feels that duty. It is also unlikely that they possess the skills to survive on their own. That family’s way of life depends on the labor of strangers, most of whom do not live in the immediate community.
The Industrial Revolution was fueled by a complex division of labor. The total human labor needed to create a product was divided into specialized tasks, each assigned to specially trained workers. The workers did not have to know or live near one another; in fact, they often lived in different parts of a country or in different parts of the world.
In addition, the materials needed to make products came from many locations around the world. Industrialization created differences among people, giving rise to organic solidarity, a system of social ties founded on interdependence, specialization, and cooperation. That is, for the most part, people relate to others in terms of their specialized roles in the division of labor and as customers. Customers buy tires from a dealer three towns over, travel by airplane flown by a pilot they might never see, and pay a cashier they’ve never met for coffee. Customers do not need to know someone personally to interact with them.
In industrial societies, most day-to-day interactions are short-lived, impersonal, and instrumental (i.e., we interact with most people for a specific reason). In addition, few individuals possess the knowledge, skills, and resources to be self-sufficient. Consequently, social ties are strong, not because people know one another, but because strangers depend upon one another to survive.